Breath Pressure, Airflow, and Onset
The same law of physics that applies to aerodynamics, known as the Bernoulli effect, applies to the vocal mechanism. After the expiratory process has begun and the vocal folds are nearly closed the Bernoulli effect pulls the vocal folds together. This is followed by a momentary pause in airflow until breath pressure pushes the vocal folds apart once again and the cycle repeats.25 Subglottal pressure is the relationship between vocal fold resistance, or pressure beneath the folds, and airflow; essentially the vocal folds are acting as a valve mechanism.26 Variations in subglottal pressure are required for variations in intensity and changing of pitch. As subglottal pressure is raised so is the pitch and loudness. 27 However, Rubin et al. suggest that intrinsic laryngeal adjustments, reflected in glottal resistance, account for variations in vocal pitch and loudness more than airflow.28 The appoggio technique utilizes this antagonist relationship between glottal closure and airflow in creating a balanced onset and free phonation. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24 Ibid.,152. 25 Ibid., 42. 26 Gillyanne Kayes, Singing and the Actor. 2nd ed. (London: A & C Black, 2004), 28. 27 Johan Sundberg, “Breathing Behavior during Singing,” The NATS Journal 49, no. 3 (1993): 7. 28 Herbert J. Rubin, Cal M. LeCover, and William Vennard, “Vocal Intensity, Subglottic Pressure and Air Flow Relationships in Singers,” Folia Phoniatrica 19, no. 6 (1967): 400. 18 An imbalance in this relationship will result in a glottal or aspirate onset. A balanced onset involves closure of the glottis simultaneously with the flow of air. A glottal onset involves the closure of the glottis previous to the flow of air. An aspirate onset involves the exhalation of air while the glottis remains partially or fully open. After the aspirate onset the vocal folds are usually brought together just enough for them to vibrate.29 Vocal scientist Johan Sundberg suggests that a balanced onset and release of laryngeal tension create “flow phonation.” He also found that singers who have a pressed or strained sound need a higher subglottal pressure to produce the same level of sound achieved with a lower subglottal pressure using flow phonation; showing that pressed phonation was less efficient than flow phonation.30 Sears agrees that the critical element of breath control is the regulation of subglottal pressure.31 The traditional appoggio technique incorporates the same ideals as flow phonation and requires for a regulation of subglottal pressure needed for purity of intonation. Additonally, Reid maintains that th 19 airflow required for many vocal qualities. Chiaroscuro and Resonance After the initiation of sound the vocal folds produce fundamental and harmonic frequencies that are amplified by the vocal tract. “[T]he hollow physiological structures of the vocal tract (the larynx, the pharynx, and the mouth) resonate to produce an improved tone and higher sound levels. These structures also act as an acoustic filter, dampening some frequencies.”34 Adjustments to the vocal tract produce variations in vocal qualities and resonance. Every time we change the shape of the vocal tract, resonance is altered. Careful movements of the tongue, jaw, soft palate, larynx, and pharyngeal wall provide the exquisite control of resonance that enables singers to produce a musical scale with uniform timbre, to create vowels required for language, and to portray the entire range of human emotion through song. When the vocal tract is resonant, standing waves synchronize with vocal fold oscillation and assist in closing the glottis, increasing vocal fold efficiency.35 Vennard agrees with McCoy “that when we are learning the shaping of cavities above the larynx, we are training the vocal cords unconsciously at the same time.”36 The bel canto tradition also incorporates vocal tract adjustments to produce “purity of intonation.” In the early eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the ideal resonant voice quality within the bel canto tradition was known as chiaroscuro, or “bright-dark” tone.37 Balancing resonance in this way was of importance to early bel canto teachers Garcia and Lamperti. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34 Davids and Latour, Vocal Technique: A Guide for Conductors, Teachers, and Singers, 63. 35 McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 36. 36 Vennard, Singing: The Mechanism and the Technic, 80. 37 Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy, 33. 20 The clear timbre imparts much brilliancy [chiaro] to the chest register, but when exaggerated make the voice shriek and shrill; whereas the sombre [scuro] gives it breadth and roundness – for by means of the latter only, the rich quality of the voice is obtained. This, however, when exaggerated, muffles the sounds, and makes them dull and hoarse.38 Although you may acquire a wide range of voice, you cannot modulate the sounds until the resonance of your tones becomes round and rich, chiaroscuro…Though resonance has many colors it does not jump from place to place, but is modified by the movement of the lips in vowel formation…The “dark-light” tone should always be present.39 There are three main resonating cavities within the vocal tract: the larynx, the pharynx, and the oral cavity. The pharynx is divided into three separate resonators called the laryngopharynx, oropharynx, and the nasopharynx. Vennard believes the pharynx is the most important of the resonating cavities as the singer can accurately and consciously control it.40 Furthermore, Vennard examined the importance of the nasopharynx as a resonating cavity. The raising of the velum (soft palate) can close off this cavity, but some vocal pedagogues advocate having nasal resonance while singing. However, in his experiment Vennard blocked off the nasal passages and sinuses with gauze and water to see if there were changes in their resonant properties. The results showed that neither nasal nor sinus resonance had validity in changing the sound.41 This of course does not pertain to nasal vowels within the French language or consonant sounds commonly associated with a lowering of the velum. Certain adjustments within the vocal tract produce various alterations to the singer’s resonance. Adjusting the vertical position of the larynx affects the chiaroscuro balance: the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 38 Manuel Garcia II, A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing, Part 1, trans by Donald Paschke (New York: Da Capo Press, 1984), 4. 39 William E. Brown, Vocal Wisdom: Maxims of Giovanni Battista Lamperti, 38-39. 40 Vennard, Singing: The Mechanism and the Technic, 92. 41 Ibid., 96. 21 shorter the length the more chiaro or brighter the sound; the longer the length, the more scuro or darker the sound. Furthermore, expanding or increasing pharyngeal volume by raising the velum, lowering the back of the jaw, and pulling the tongue out of the pharynx improves its resonating characteristics.42 Adjusting these cavities in both shape and volume affect the formant frequencies or resonances of the vocal tract. Stark provides a summary of the modern formant theory first published by Hermann Helmholtz in 1862. [According to the modern formant theory] the voice source – the glottis – produces a harmonic series, consisting of the fundamental frequency and a large number of partials or harmonics…While [formants 1 and 2] largely determine the vowel, it is the strength of all the formants which determine the tone colour…Adjusting the vocal tract in order to align formants with harmonics…is known as formant tuning. This singer might think of this as…modifying the vowels.43 All vowels have certain fundamental and harmonic frequencies associated with them. The vowel spectrum moves from chiaro [i] to scuro [u]. The balancing of these frequencies throughout the range requires the correct adjustments of the vocal tract by working with vowel formation and resonance awareness associated with chiaroscuro. However, finding the balance can be difficult and James McKinney provides multiple causes for an overly dark or overly bright tone.44 Finding the balance within the bel canto tradition was accomplished through vowel purity, which correlates to modern science’s idea of the adjustable vocal tract. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 42 Ibid., 119. 43 Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy, 48. 44 James C. McKinney, The Diagnosis & Correction of Vocal Faults: A Manual for Teachers of Singing and for Choir Directors, Rev. and expanded ed. (Nashville, TN: Genevox Music Group, 1994). 22 The constant striving of the early masters of singing toward the goal of vowel purity, therefore, was in effect an effort by instinct whose purpose was to duplicate a favorable acoustic condition. To form a ‘pure vowel’ is to set the vocal organs in a favorable adjustment, and this adjustment then awakens a desirable harmonic response increasing the beauty and purity of the tone quality. This is the only means at the singer’s disposal for gaining satisfactory control over the acoustical condition of the voice.45 The final formant of importance is known as the singer’s formant. This is a band of highfrequency resonance that occurs around 2500 to 3500 Hz. This formant is essential for singers to be heard over large orchestras. Because of the work of vocal scientists Johan Sundberg and Ingo Titze, voice teachers know more about how the singer’s formant is formed. “Current research indicates that production of singer’s formant is associated with a long closed phase in the vocal fold vibratory cycle, narrowing of the vocal tract immediately above the larynx, a wide pharynx, and adjustment of the articulators to maximize close cavity coupling.”46 There are varying opinions of the use of singer’s formant in the choral setting. A study comparing the voice use in solo singing and choral singing found that soloists have more power in the singer’s formant region in solo mode and more power in the fundamental region in the choral mode. Furthermore, it was found that soloists usually adjusted their levels to the levels of other singers.47 However, Davids and Latour believe that singer’s formant can be very helpful when a choir is singing with an orchestra. Fagnan experimented with five different types of choirs using the main principles of bel canto technique discussed above and their effect in the choral setting. He found success in all four main tenets. Notably he found employing the concept !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 45 Reid, Bel Canto: Principles and Practices, 38. 46 Jean Callaghan, Singing and Voice Science (San Diego: Singular Publishing Group, 2000), 72. 47 Thomas D. Rossing, Johan Sundberg, and Sten Ternström, “Acoustic Comparison of Voice in Solo and Choir Singing,” Acoustical Society of America 79, no. 6 (1986): 1975-1981. 23 of le coup de glotte significantly improved the level of upper spectrum energy associated with the singer’s formant while lowering levels of energy near the fundamental frequency. He also found that chiaroscuro resonance caused the choral groups to attain a more homogenous sound and more consistent intonation throughout the vowel spectrum. Overall, bel canto techniques were found to be effective tools in improving the overall vocal technique of choral groups.48 The Current Vocal Tone Debate During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries vocal style began to change in response to the expansion of concert halls, the increase in instrumental forces, and advances in technology. The first of these changes could be seen in the nineteenth century with the Germanic tonal ideal that required a more powerful and dramatic singing style for the operas of Wagner and Verdi.49 During this time, power of facility in singing was admired over florid singing ability. Striving for a pure legato was overtaken by the newly formed Germanic declamatory style, Sprechgesang. Furthermore, a darker tone quality, slower vibratory rate, and heavier overall vocal production became synonymous with the Germanic ideal. Miller adds that a fixed vocal tract, “one ‘ideal’ mouth and jaw posture through which the vowels are sung are united in the typical GermanNordic School of vocal technique.”50 He further associates the depressed, low-laryngeal position with the German school.51 Early twentieth century American choral directors adopted various approaches to choral !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48 Laurier Fagnan, “The Acoustical Effects of the Core Principles of the Bel Canto Method on Choral Singing,” (DMA diss., University of Alberta, 2005), 132-133. 49 Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy, 119. 50 Richard Miller, National Schools of Singing: English, French, German, and Italian Techniques of Singing Revisited, (London: The Scarecrow Press, 1997), xxvi. 51 Ibid., 90. 24 tone including these Italian and Germanic styles. Most research describes two approaches: the first increases the dynamic level and the tone quality of the individual singer in order for each singer to sing as a soloist. The second reduces the dynamic level and tone quality of each individual singer in order for all singers within the ensemble to match each other.52 These two approaches could be seen in the well-known choral schools of St. Olaf and Westminster Choir College. In “The Development of a Choral Instrument,” Howard Swan describes various approaches to the establishment of American choral tone. He suggests that the choir’s tone quality is most directly influenced by the conductor’s approach to the rehearsal process. Swan examines the development of choral tone in six different choral ensembles and their conductors. 53 Two of the choral schools described by Howard Swan, Schools A [Westminster Choir College] and C [St. Olaf] influenced the choral movement throughout the United States in the early Twentieth Century. Their role in the training of many choral conductors and extensive touring by choirs at both schools contributed to this impact. Furthermore, their divergent approaches to choral tone have influenced the choral sound sought after by many conductors throughout the country.54 All national schools of singing have influenced these diverse approaches to choral tone. “Pedagogically, some of the most important concepts of the period were the straight-tone singing, the dark choral tone, the emphasis upon blending of similar voices, [and] the vowel-is- !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 52 Brian J. Knutson, “Interview with Selected Choral Conductors Concerning Rationale and Practices Regarding Choral Blend,” (PhD diss., Florida State University, 1987), 6. 53Harold A. Decker, and Julius Herford, Choral Conducting Symposium, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998), 23. 54 Alan Zabriskie, “Evolution of Choral Sound of the St. Olaf Choir and the Westminster Choir,” (PhD diss., Florida State University, 2010), 2. 25 the-tone concept of singing.”55 One such conductor, F. Melius Christiansen of St. Olaf, studied in Leipzig, Germany and taught singers to create an overall dark tone quality throughout the vowel spectrum. Zabriskie maintains that, “[Christiansen] preferred placement of sound in the back of throat to create a dark sound.”56 However, there are contemporary choral conductors in America that seek to develop a more balanced chiaroscuro tonal ideal such as Joseph Miller at Westminster Choir College. Zabriskie asserts that Miller’s, “resulting sound, however, tended toward the chiaro, thus creating a bright overall sound…[Miller] altered the sound and made it flexible through manipulation of vowel sounds towards either a bright or a dark color.”57 There is also debate among vocal pedagogues who differentiate vocal technique associated with choral singing from solo singing. Smith states “[choral singing] gives little emphasis to the singer’s formant, neutralizing idiosyncrasies of individual singers to create a blend of voices.”58 However, Miller does not believe there should be such conflict between training the solo voice and the singer in a choral ensemble. “The answer for the choral conductor is not to make solo singers emulate the technical level of amateur voices but to work for a more efficient production from the less proficient singers.”59 Further evidence of the diverse tonal preferences can be seen between European and American choirs. Quist showed two highly distinguished conductor’s tonal ideals via !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 55 Gerald F. Darrow, Four Decades of Choral Training (Metuchen, NJ: ScarecrowPress,1975), 3. 56 Zabriskie, “Evolution of Choral Sound of the St. Olaf Choir and the Westminster Choir,” 13. 57 Ibid., 87 -88. 58 Brenda Smith, and Robert Thayer Sataloff, Choral Pedagogy. 2nd ed. (San Diego: Plural Publishers, 2006), 182-183. 59 Miller, On the Art of Singing, 58. 26 spectrograms. The two spectrograms below (figure 1) show the same passage of music from Sergei Rachmaninov’s “Bogoroditse Devo” from the Vespers. The first choir is a professional Swedish choir; the second is a professional American choir. The x-axis shows time, the y-axis frequency, and the intensity of color shows volume. Figure 1. Spectrograms of two choral aesthetics. 60 The upper spectrogram of the Swedish choir shows much higher frequency bands, including a much stronger presence in the singer’s formant region than the American choir. Quist asserts, “[c]hoirs that sing with a characteristic ‘darkened’ vowel color without ring may not only become tired, but also tend to sing below the pitch.”61 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 60 Amanda Quist, “Choral Resonance: Re-examining Concepts of Tone and Unification,” (DMA diss., University of North Texas, 2008), 19-20. Used with permission from author. 61 Ibid., 21. 27 It is my belief that bel canto’s main tenets promote healthy singing, and have been proven successful through scholarly research and evidence. In the twenty-first century vocalists should be encouraged to become more versatile in their technique and to perform diverse genres. This only further propagates the necessity to understand the basic foundational elements to all healthy singing incorporated within the bel canto tenets: breath, onset, and resonance. The vast array of tonal concepts in choral programs can propagate a singular aesthetic ideal (such as an overly dark, depressed laryngeal position with a high level of airflow) without an understanding of voice science and technique. However, teaching from a neutral access point of each tenet associated with bel canto can help singers understand the connection of speech to singing in a healthy manner without propagating a singular aesthetic ideal. Singers can then branch outwards into the myriad of vocal qualities within diverse genres by making subtle changes to any main tenet or component of the vocal mechanism. These changes correlate with the main principles associated with CCM discussed in chapter three. James Stark summarizes it best: “A recurring theme in vocal history is the decline of good singing and the loss of the secrets of the old Italian school. But this may only be a cyclical reaction to the mutations of bel canto, as singers met the challenges of new musical styles by modifying their technique rather than abandoning its essential components…Just as a prism breaks a single beam of light into many different colours, bel canto represents a way of singing in which a basic vocal technique accommodates itself to a wide spectrum of musical styles.”62 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 62 Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy, xxv. 28 CHAPTER 3 CONTEMPORARY VOCAL TECHNIQUE ASSOCIATED WITH CONTEMPORARY COMMERICIAL MUSIC The Growth of Contemporary Commercial Music As a singer and choral educator it is evident that composers are adopting popular vocal idioms, and traditional solo and choral repertoire continues to explore varied styles of CCM. Moreover, contemporary culture has seen an influx of popular music-based television shows including American Idol, The Voice, Smash, Glee, and more since 2002. These shows have not only garnered a large viewer base, but have also influenced students to become more involved with music in schools. According to a 2011 CNN poll, conducted by Harris Interactive, musically themed shows such as "Glee" and “Camp Rock 2” generated new interest in school music programs among students between the ages of 8 and 18. The survey of 1,800 students found that 31 percent more students wanted to participate in school music activities due to these shows.1 Likewise a 2010 poll conducted by NAfME and published by The Boston Globe found that 43 percent of choral instructors gave the show "Glee" credit for the increase in student auditions for school music groups. 2 This growth in popular styles can also be seen at the university and collegiate level. Due to increased enrollment in CCM degree programs, current job descriptions for choral and vocal teachers in higher education are seeking candidates that are knowledgeable in diverse vocal !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Stephanie Chen, “The ‘Glee’ effect: Singing is cool,” Cable News Network, http://www.cnn.com/2010/LIVING/11/15/glee.effect.show.choir.comeback/index.html (accessed August 10, 2013). 2 National Association for Music Education, “Glee: Making a Difference for America’s Music Education?” NAfME, http://musiced.nafme.org/news/press-releases/press-release-gleemaking-a-difference-for-americas-music-students/ (accessed August 10, 2013). 29 techniques and CCM. Colleges and universities are also adding popular vocal pedagogy courses into the degree requirements for undergraduate music education students. “Because of the increasing demand of students desiring a [musical theatre] degree, many colleges, universities, and conservatories have begun to offer degrees in [musical theatre] and commercial music. In such schools, the singing teacher who has been teaching classical vocal production is also often expected to teach CCM styles.”3 This increase in demand has led some institutions to add degree programs in the area of CCM without a qualified instructor. Such situations pose the need for more teachers to be specialized in vocal production such as CVT that encompasses the entirety of the vocal instrument. Lack of training in CVT has been shown in a 2003 survey sent to professional vocal teachers, who attended the CCM Vocal Pedagogy Institute at Shenandoah Conservatory. These teachers worked in private voice studios, colleges, and universities and were expected to be knowledgeable and teach CCM styles such as musical theatre. It was found that 34 percent of university faculty respondents teaching CCM had neither professional nor university training in this area. A follow-up survey was conducted every summer for three years with voice professionals who attended the same institute. The survey consisted of questions regarding performing and teaching experience, knowledge of voice science and medicine, and terminology regarding CCM styles. Results indicated that respondents desired knowledge in the areas of vocal science as it pertains to practical use in all CCM singing styles, availability of organized and consistent vocal production information for CCM, and training to learn healthy vocal
The same law of physics that applies to aerodynamics, known as the Bernoulli effect, applies to the vocal mechanism. After the expiratory process has begun and the vocal folds are nearly closed the Bernoulli effect pulls the vocal folds together. This is followed by a momentary pause in airflow until breath pressure pushes the vocal folds apart once again and the cycle repeats.25 Subglottal pressure is the relationship between vocal fold resistance, or pressure beneath the folds, and airflow; essentially the vocal folds are acting as a valve mechanism.26 Variations in subglottal pressure are required for variations in intensity and changing of pitch. As subglottal pressure is raised so is the pitch and loudness. 27 However, Rubin et al. suggest that intrinsic laryngeal adjustments, reflected in glottal resistance, account for variations in vocal pitch and loudness more than airflow.28 The appoggio technique utilizes this antagonist relationship between glottal closure and airflow in creating a balanced onset and free phonation. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24 Ibid.,152. 25 Ibid., 42. 26 Gillyanne Kayes, Singing and the Actor. 2nd ed. (London: A & C Black, 2004), 28. 27 Johan Sundberg, “Breathing Behavior during Singing,” The NATS Journal 49, no. 3 (1993): 7. 28 Herbert J. Rubin, Cal M. LeCover, and William Vennard, “Vocal Intensity, Subglottic Pressure and Air Flow Relationships in Singers,” Folia Phoniatrica 19, no. 6 (1967): 400. 18 An imbalance in this relationship will result in a glottal or aspirate onset. A balanced onset involves closure of the glottis simultaneously with the flow of air. A glottal onset involves the closure of the glottis previous to the flow of air. An aspirate onset involves the exhalation of air while the glottis remains partially or fully open. After the aspirate onset the vocal folds are usually brought together just enough for them to vibrate.29 Vocal scientist Johan Sundberg suggests that a balanced onset and release of laryngeal tension create “flow phonation.” He also found that singers who have a pressed or strained sound need a higher subglottal pressure to produce the same level of sound achieved with a lower subglottal pressure using flow phonation; showing that pressed phonation was less efficient than flow phonation.30 Sears agrees that the critical element of breath control is the regulation of subglottal pressure.31 The traditional appoggio technique incorporates the same ideals as flow phonation and requires for a regulation of subglottal pressure needed for purity of intonation. Additonally, Reid maintains that th 19 airflow required for many vocal qualities. Chiaroscuro and Resonance After the initiation of sound the vocal folds produce fundamental and harmonic frequencies that are amplified by the vocal tract. “[T]he hollow physiological structures of the vocal tract (the larynx, the pharynx, and the mouth) resonate to produce an improved tone and higher sound levels. These structures also act as an acoustic filter, dampening some frequencies.”34 Adjustments to the vocal tract produce variations in vocal qualities and resonance. Every time we change the shape of the vocal tract, resonance is altered. Careful movements of the tongue, jaw, soft palate, larynx, and pharyngeal wall provide the exquisite control of resonance that enables singers to produce a musical scale with uniform timbre, to create vowels required for language, and to portray the entire range of human emotion through song. When the vocal tract is resonant, standing waves synchronize with vocal fold oscillation and assist in closing the glottis, increasing vocal fold efficiency.35 Vennard agrees with McCoy “that when we are learning the shaping of cavities above the larynx, we are training the vocal cords unconsciously at the same time.”36 The bel canto tradition also incorporates vocal tract adjustments to produce “purity of intonation.” In the early eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the ideal resonant voice quality within the bel canto tradition was known as chiaroscuro, or “bright-dark” tone.37 Balancing resonance in this way was of importance to early bel canto teachers Garcia and Lamperti. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34 Davids and Latour, Vocal Technique: A Guide for Conductors, Teachers, and Singers, 63. 35 McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 36. 36 Vennard, Singing: The Mechanism and the Technic, 80. 37 Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy, 33. 20 The clear timbre imparts much brilliancy [chiaro] to the chest register, but when exaggerated make the voice shriek and shrill; whereas the sombre [scuro] gives it breadth and roundness – for by means of the latter only, the rich quality of the voice is obtained. This, however, when exaggerated, muffles the sounds, and makes them dull and hoarse.38 Although you may acquire a wide range of voice, you cannot modulate the sounds until the resonance of your tones becomes round and rich, chiaroscuro…Though resonance has many colors it does not jump from place to place, but is modified by the movement of the lips in vowel formation…The “dark-light” tone should always be present.39 There are three main resonating cavities within the vocal tract: the larynx, the pharynx, and the oral cavity. The pharynx is divided into three separate resonators called the laryngopharynx, oropharynx, and the nasopharynx. Vennard believes the pharynx is the most important of the resonating cavities as the singer can accurately and consciously control it.40 Furthermore, Vennard examined the importance of the nasopharynx as a resonating cavity. The raising of the velum (soft palate) can close off this cavity, but some vocal pedagogues advocate having nasal resonance while singing. However, in his experiment Vennard blocked off the nasal passages and sinuses with gauze and water to see if there were changes in their resonant properties. The results showed that neither nasal nor sinus resonance had validity in changing the sound.41 This of course does not pertain to nasal vowels within the French language or consonant sounds commonly associated with a lowering of the velum. Certain adjustments within the vocal tract produce various alterations to the singer’s resonance. Adjusting the vertical position of the larynx affects the chiaroscuro balance: the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 38 Manuel Garcia II, A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing, Part 1, trans by Donald Paschke (New York: Da Capo Press, 1984), 4. 39 William E. Brown, Vocal Wisdom: Maxims of Giovanni Battista Lamperti, 38-39. 40 Vennard, Singing: The Mechanism and the Technic, 92. 41 Ibid., 96. 21 shorter the length the more chiaro or brighter the sound; the longer the length, the more scuro or darker the sound. Furthermore, expanding or increasing pharyngeal volume by raising the velum, lowering the back of the jaw, and pulling the tongue out of the pharynx improves its resonating characteristics.42 Adjusting these cavities in both shape and volume affect the formant frequencies or resonances of the vocal tract. Stark provides a summary of the modern formant theory first published by Hermann Helmholtz in 1862. [According to the modern formant theory] the voice source – the glottis – produces a harmonic series, consisting of the fundamental frequency and a large number of partials or harmonics…While [formants 1 and 2] largely determine the vowel, it is the strength of all the formants which determine the tone colour…Adjusting the vocal tract in order to align formants with harmonics…is known as formant tuning. This singer might think of this as…modifying the vowels.43 All vowels have certain fundamental and harmonic frequencies associated with them. The vowel spectrum moves from chiaro [i] to scuro [u]. The balancing of these frequencies throughout the range requires the correct adjustments of the vocal tract by working with vowel formation and resonance awareness associated with chiaroscuro. However, finding the balance can be difficult and James McKinney provides multiple causes for an overly dark or overly bright tone.44 Finding the balance within the bel canto tradition was accomplished through vowel purity, which correlates to modern science’s idea of the adjustable vocal tract. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 42 Ibid., 119. 43 Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy, 48. 44 James C. McKinney, The Diagnosis & Correction of Vocal Faults: A Manual for Teachers of Singing and for Choir Directors, Rev. and expanded ed. (Nashville, TN: Genevox Music Group, 1994). 22 The constant striving of the early masters of singing toward the goal of vowel purity, therefore, was in effect an effort by instinct whose purpose was to duplicate a favorable acoustic condition. To form a ‘pure vowel’ is to set the vocal organs in a favorable adjustment, and this adjustment then awakens a desirable harmonic response increasing the beauty and purity of the tone quality. This is the only means at the singer’s disposal for gaining satisfactory control over the acoustical condition of the voice.45 The final formant of importance is known as the singer’s formant. This is a band of highfrequency resonance that occurs around 2500 to 3500 Hz. This formant is essential for singers to be heard over large orchestras. Because of the work of vocal scientists Johan Sundberg and Ingo Titze, voice teachers know more about how the singer’s formant is formed. “Current research indicates that production of singer’s formant is associated with a long closed phase in the vocal fold vibratory cycle, narrowing of the vocal tract immediately above the larynx, a wide pharynx, and adjustment of the articulators to maximize close cavity coupling.”46 There are varying opinions of the use of singer’s formant in the choral setting. A study comparing the voice use in solo singing and choral singing found that soloists have more power in the singer’s formant region in solo mode and more power in the fundamental region in the choral mode. Furthermore, it was found that soloists usually adjusted their levels to the levels of other singers.47 However, Davids and Latour believe that singer’s formant can be very helpful when a choir is singing with an orchestra. Fagnan experimented with five different types of choirs using the main principles of bel canto technique discussed above and their effect in the choral setting. He found success in all four main tenets. Notably he found employing the concept !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 45 Reid, Bel Canto: Principles and Practices, 38. 46 Jean Callaghan, Singing and Voice Science (San Diego: Singular Publishing Group, 2000), 72. 47 Thomas D. Rossing, Johan Sundberg, and Sten Ternström, “Acoustic Comparison of Voice in Solo and Choir Singing,” Acoustical Society of America 79, no. 6 (1986): 1975-1981. 23 of le coup de glotte significantly improved the level of upper spectrum energy associated with the singer’s formant while lowering levels of energy near the fundamental frequency. He also found that chiaroscuro resonance caused the choral groups to attain a more homogenous sound and more consistent intonation throughout the vowel spectrum. Overall, bel canto techniques were found to be effective tools in improving the overall vocal technique of choral groups.48 The Current Vocal Tone Debate During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries vocal style began to change in response to the expansion of concert halls, the increase in instrumental forces, and advances in technology. The first of these changes could be seen in the nineteenth century with the Germanic tonal ideal that required a more powerful and dramatic singing style for the operas of Wagner and Verdi.49 During this time, power of facility in singing was admired over florid singing ability. Striving for a pure legato was overtaken by the newly formed Germanic declamatory style, Sprechgesang. Furthermore, a darker tone quality, slower vibratory rate, and heavier overall vocal production became synonymous with the Germanic ideal. Miller adds that a fixed vocal tract, “one ‘ideal’ mouth and jaw posture through which the vowels are sung are united in the typical GermanNordic School of vocal technique.”50 He further associates the depressed, low-laryngeal position with the German school.51 Early twentieth century American choral directors adopted various approaches to choral !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48 Laurier Fagnan, “The Acoustical Effects of the Core Principles of the Bel Canto Method on Choral Singing,” (DMA diss., University of Alberta, 2005), 132-133. 49 Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy, 119. 50 Richard Miller, National Schools of Singing: English, French, German, and Italian Techniques of Singing Revisited, (London: The Scarecrow Press, 1997), xxvi. 51 Ibid., 90. 24 tone including these Italian and Germanic styles. Most research describes two approaches: the first increases the dynamic level and the tone quality of the individual singer in order for each singer to sing as a soloist. The second reduces the dynamic level and tone quality of each individual singer in order for all singers within the ensemble to match each other.52 These two approaches could be seen in the well-known choral schools of St. Olaf and Westminster Choir College. In “The Development of a Choral Instrument,” Howard Swan describes various approaches to the establishment of American choral tone. He suggests that the choir’s tone quality is most directly influenced by the conductor’s approach to the rehearsal process. Swan examines the development of choral tone in six different choral ensembles and their conductors. 53 Two of the choral schools described by Howard Swan, Schools A [Westminster Choir College] and C [St. Olaf] influenced the choral movement throughout the United States in the early Twentieth Century. Their role in the training of many choral conductors and extensive touring by choirs at both schools contributed to this impact. Furthermore, their divergent approaches to choral tone have influenced the choral sound sought after by many conductors throughout the country.54 All national schools of singing have influenced these diverse approaches to choral tone. “Pedagogically, some of the most important concepts of the period were the straight-tone singing, the dark choral tone, the emphasis upon blending of similar voices, [and] the vowel-is- !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 52 Brian J. Knutson, “Interview with Selected Choral Conductors Concerning Rationale and Practices Regarding Choral Blend,” (PhD diss., Florida State University, 1987), 6. 53Harold A. Decker, and Julius Herford, Choral Conducting Symposium, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998), 23. 54 Alan Zabriskie, “Evolution of Choral Sound of the St. Olaf Choir and the Westminster Choir,” (PhD diss., Florida State University, 2010), 2. 25 the-tone concept of singing.”55 One such conductor, F. Melius Christiansen of St. Olaf, studied in Leipzig, Germany and taught singers to create an overall dark tone quality throughout the vowel spectrum. Zabriskie maintains that, “[Christiansen] preferred placement of sound in the back of throat to create a dark sound.”56 However, there are contemporary choral conductors in America that seek to develop a more balanced chiaroscuro tonal ideal such as Joseph Miller at Westminster Choir College. Zabriskie asserts that Miller’s, “resulting sound, however, tended toward the chiaro, thus creating a bright overall sound…[Miller] altered the sound and made it flexible through manipulation of vowel sounds towards either a bright or a dark color.”57 There is also debate among vocal pedagogues who differentiate vocal technique associated with choral singing from solo singing. Smith states “[choral singing] gives little emphasis to the singer’s formant, neutralizing idiosyncrasies of individual singers to create a blend of voices.”58 However, Miller does not believe there should be such conflict between training the solo voice and the singer in a choral ensemble. “The answer for the choral conductor is not to make solo singers emulate the technical level of amateur voices but to work for a more efficient production from the less proficient singers.”59 Further evidence of the diverse tonal preferences can be seen between European and American choirs. Quist showed two highly distinguished conductor’s tonal ideals via !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 55 Gerald F. Darrow, Four Decades of Choral Training (Metuchen, NJ: ScarecrowPress,1975), 3. 56 Zabriskie, “Evolution of Choral Sound of the St. Olaf Choir and the Westminster Choir,” 13. 57 Ibid., 87 -88. 58 Brenda Smith, and Robert Thayer Sataloff, Choral Pedagogy. 2nd ed. (San Diego: Plural Publishers, 2006), 182-183. 59 Miller, On the Art of Singing, 58. 26 spectrograms. The two spectrograms below (figure 1) show the same passage of music from Sergei Rachmaninov’s “Bogoroditse Devo” from the Vespers. The first choir is a professional Swedish choir; the second is a professional American choir. The x-axis shows time, the y-axis frequency, and the intensity of color shows volume. Figure 1. Spectrograms of two choral aesthetics. 60 The upper spectrogram of the Swedish choir shows much higher frequency bands, including a much stronger presence in the singer’s formant region than the American choir. Quist asserts, “[c]hoirs that sing with a characteristic ‘darkened’ vowel color without ring may not only become tired, but also tend to sing below the pitch.”61 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 60 Amanda Quist, “Choral Resonance: Re-examining Concepts of Tone and Unification,” (DMA diss., University of North Texas, 2008), 19-20. Used with permission from author. 61 Ibid., 21. 27 It is my belief that bel canto’s main tenets promote healthy singing, and have been proven successful through scholarly research and evidence. In the twenty-first century vocalists should be encouraged to become more versatile in their technique and to perform diverse genres. This only further propagates the necessity to understand the basic foundational elements to all healthy singing incorporated within the bel canto tenets: breath, onset, and resonance. The vast array of tonal concepts in choral programs can propagate a singular aesthetic ideal (such as an overly dark, depressed laryngeal position with a high level of airflow) without an understanding of voice science and technique. However, teaching from a neutral access point of each tenet associated with bel canto can help singers understand the connection of speech to singing in a healthy manner without propagating a singular aesthetic ideal. Singers can then branch outwards into the myriad of vocal qualities within diverse genres by making subtle changes to any main tenet or component of the vocal mechanism. These changes correlate with the main principles associated with CCM discussed in chapter three. James Stark summarizes it best: “A recurring theme in vocal history is the decline of good singing and the loss of the secrets of the old Italian school. But this may only be a cyclical reaction to the mutations of bel canto, as singers met the challenges of new musical styles by modifying their technique rather than abandoning its essential components…Just as a prism breaks a single beam of light into many different colours, bel canto represents a way of singing in which a basic vocal technique accommodates itself to a wide spectrum of musical styles.”62 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 62 Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy, xxv. 28 CHAPTER 3 CONTEMPORARY VOCAL TECHNIQUE ASSOCIATED WITH CONTEMPORARY COMMERICIAL MUSIC The Growth of Contemporary Commercial Music As a singer and choral educator it is evident that composers are adopting popular vocal idioms, and traditional solo and choral repertoire continues to explore varied styles of CCM. Moreover, contemporary culture has seen an influx of popular music-based television shows including American Idol, The Voice, Smash, Glee, and more since 2002. These shows have not only garnered a large viewer base, but have also influenced students to become more involved with music in schools. According to a 2011 CNN poll, conducted by Harris Interactive, musically themed shows such as "Glee" and “Camp Rock 2” generated new interest in school music programs among students between the ages of 8 and 18. The survey of 1,800 students found that 31 percent more students wanted to participate in school music activities due to these shows.1 Likewise a 2010 poll conducted by NAfME and published by The Boston Globe found that 43 percent of choral instructors gave the show "Glee" credit for the increase in student auditions for school music groups. 2 This growth in popular styles can also be seen at the university and collegiate level. Due to increased enrollment in CCM degree programs, current job descriptions for choral and vocal teachers in higher education are seeking candidates that are knowledgeable in diverse vocal !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Stephanie Chen, “The ‘Glee’ effect: Singing is cool,” Cable News Network, http://www.cnn.com/2010/LIVING/11/15/glee.effect.show.choir.comeback/index.html (accessed August 10, 2013). 2 National Association for Music Education, “Glee: Making a Difference for America’s Music Education?” NAfME, http://musiced.nafme.org/news/press-releases/press-release-gleemaking-a-difference-for-americas-music-students/ (accessed August 10, 2013). 29 techniques and CCM. Colleges and universities are also adding popular vocal pedagogy courses into the degree requirements for undergraduate music education students. “Because of the increasing demand of students desiring a [musical theatre] degree, many colleges, universities, and conservatories have begun to offer degrees in [musical theatre] and commercial music. In such schools, the singing teacher who has been teaching classical vocal production is also often expected to teach CCM styles.”3 This increase in demand has led some institutions to add degree programs in the area of CCM without a qualified instructor. Such situations pose the need for more teachers to be specialized in vocal production such as CVT that encompasses the entirety of the vocal instrument. Lack of training in CVT has been shown in a 2003 survey sent to professional vocal teachers, who attended the CCM Vocal Pedagogy Institute at Shenandoah Conservatory. These teachers worked in private voice studios, colleges, and universities and were expected to be knowledgeable and teach CCM styles such as musical theatre. It was found that 34 percent of university faculty respondents teaching CCM had neither professional nor university training in this area. A follow-up survey was conducted every summer for three years with voice professionals who attended the same institute. The survey consisted of questions regarding performing and teaching experience, knowledge of voice science and medicine, and terminology regarding CCM styles. Results indicated that respondents desired knowledge in the areas of vocal science as it pertains to practical use in all CCM singing styles, availability of organized and consistent vocal production information for CCM, and training to learn healthy vocal
Breath Pressure, Airflow, and Onset in singing
![Breath Pressure, Airflow, and Onset in singing]()
Reviewed by Lehvi
on
October 04, 2018
Rating:
No comments: